Nemesis by Philip Roth

 

Nemesis      by Philip Roth

Summary

Nemesis, published in 2010, chronicles the impact of the 1944 polio epidemic on a middle-class Jewish community in Newark, New Jersey. The protagonist, 23-year-old Bucky Cantor, is ineligible to serve in the war and instead works as the neighborhood's playground director. Throughout the summer, Bucky witnesses the disease's devastating effects and attempts to cope with senseless tragedy. Throughout Nemesis, Roth explores themes of economic privilege, masculinity, mortality, and survivor's guilt.

In an interview with the NPR show Fresh Air, Roth explained that he never before saw polio as a subject for his writing. However, when he remembered how frightening and deadly the disease was, he found it important to convey the difficult emotions associated with this time in American history. According to Roth, writing Nemesis "became an exercise in recovering [my] own memories of childhood, when both the polio epidemic and World War II were in full swing."

Nemesis received lukewarm reviews upon its release. Though the novel is not the author's most celebrated work, Nicholas Lezard of The Guardian writes, "Roth's ear has never been better, and there is an almost unbelievable mastery of technique in the way that the prose slips between narrative and speech." In 2011, the book was shortlisted for the Wellcome Trust Book Prize. In April 2020, Richard Brody of the New Yorker wrote an article addressing the "eerie familiarities" of Nemesis in the global COVID-19 crisis.

 

Bucky Cantor is an enthusiastic 23-year-old playground director at the Chancellor Avenue School in Weequahic, Newark, New Jersey. Despite his small frame, Bucky is an accomplished athlete. He is a competitive javelin thrower, weightlifter, and diver. The story begins in 1944, during World War II. At this time, all of Bucky's friends and peers are enlisted and fighting abroad. Bucky's poor eyesight has disqualified him from serving, and he is racked with guilt for missing out on this formative nationwide experience. This event exacerbates Bucky's insecurities about his masculinity.

Bucky sees the playground as his battlefield, and he is keen to command it like a soldier. In the summertime, there is a polio outbreak that particularly affects Weequahic. Many of Bucky's students are afflicted, and the results are devastating. Day after day, more students become paralyzed and die. Bucky, who has been raised as an observant Jew, begins to question his faith. The events seem senseless, and he is deeply impacted by the children's suffering.

Bucky's early life was ridden with tragedy. After his mother died in childbirth, his father was imprisoned and then abandoned his family. Consequently, Bucky was raised by his grandparents. Bucky's grandfather was particularly tough, and he wanted to ensure his grandson's emotional and physical strength. We learn that Bucky's grandfather has passed away three years prior to the beginning of the story, and Bucky is now the primary caregiver for his grandmother.

Bucky is happy about his relationship with Marcia, a fellow teacher who is spending her summer working as a camp counselor in the Poconos. Marcia calls Bucky frequently, worrying that he will contract polio if he remains in Newark. Bucky initially refuses Marcia's offer. One day, however, after visiting Marcia's father, he decides that he wants to propose to his girlfriend. He leaves Newark for Indian Hill Summer Camp to inform Marcia of the good news and spend the rest of the summer with his new fiancée.

Indian Hill strikes Bucky as utopian. However, Bucky is unable to fully enjoy the camp because he feels so guilty for abandoning the playground children. He vacillates between returning to Newark or remaining at Indian Hill, ultimately settling on the latter. Polio, however, knows no boundaries. A few weeks after his arrival, one of Bucky's best friends and co-counselors contracts polio. Bucky's guilt magnifies, as he is convinced that he is the carrier that has brought polio from Newark to Indian Hill.

Within 48 hours, life changes drastically. Summer camp ends prematurely, and Bucky goes to the hospital to check if he could possibly be a polio carrier. Although he has not previously had any symptoms, Bucky tests positive for polio. He is soon afflicted with all of the debilitating symptoms, and he is partially paralyzed. He remains in a brace or wheelchair for the rest of his life.

Nearly 25 years later, a former playground student named Arnie Mesnikoff encounters Bucky on the street. Like Bucky, Arnie contracted polio and survived. He also wears leg braces and struggles with mobility. The two begin to have weekly lunches together, where Bucky divulges the events of the past quarter century. Arnie is revealed to be the narrator of Nemesis.

Arnie learns that following Bucky's diagnosis, he became depressed and saw his life as irrecoverable. He remains convinced that he carried polio to the playground children and to Indian Hill campers, and he continues to feel immensely guilty. Additionally, he asked Marcia to leave him to "protect her" from having a crippled husband. He never dated or remarried, and he remains heartbroken and alone. Arnie tries to cheer Bucky up, but he realizes that he has spent the last decades ashamed of himself and his condition. The story ends when Arnie reminisces about his school days. He recalls the community's admiration of Bucky Cantor. He prefers to remember this version of Bucky, the strong javelin thrower and hero.

Nemesis Character List

Eugene "Bucky" Cantor

Bucky Cantor is an enthusiastic 23-year-old playground director at the Chancellor Avenue School. Bucky is Jewish, and he lives and works in the middle-class Jewish neighborhood of Weequahic in Newark, New Jersey. Despite his small frame, Bucky is an accomplished athlete. He is a competitive javelin thrower, weightlifter, and diver. Bucky has poor eyesight, and as a result of his condition, he is not allowed to serve in World War II. This experience makes Bucky feel isolated, since all of his friends and peers are soldiers.

Bucky's early life was ridden with tragedy. After his mother died in childbirth, his father was imprisoned and then abandoned his family. Consequently, Bucky was raised by his grandparents. Bucky's grandfather, Sam Cantor, owned a neighborhood grocery store and was particularly tough on his grandson. He taught Bucky to overcome adversity and embody emotional and physical strength. Bucky's grandfather passed away three years prior to the beginning of the story, and Bucky is now the primary caretaker for his grandmother. They live together in a walk-up in Weequahic.

Sam Cantor

Sam Cantor was Bucky's grandfather. He and his wife, Bucky's grandmother, raised Bucky after their daughter passed away in childbirth and their son-in-law abandoned the family. Sam Cantor owned a neighborhood grocery store throughout his life. He was an observant Jew, and he often explained his encounters with antisemitism to Bucky as an affirmation of his faith. Sam Cantor once told Bucky that "a man’s every endeavor [is] imbued with responsibility." This aphorism steers Bucky through many decisions and actions throughout his life.

Marcia Steinberg

Marcia Steinberg is Bucky's girlfriend, and later his fiancée. She is a teacher at the Chancellor Avenue School, and she spends the summer of 1944 in the Poconos working at Indian Hill Camp. Marcia comes from an upper-middle-class family, and she has more socioeconomic mobility than Bucky. Bucky admires her background and finds comfort in her family's love and warmth.

Throughout the novel, Marcia tries to convince Bucky to leave Chancellor and join her at Indian Hill for the summer. When he eventually does, the visit is unpleasant because Bucky feels guilty about abandoning his students. Although Marcia vows to love Bucky throughout her life, things change when Bucky contracts polio. While Marcia's commitment remains steadfast, Bucky does not want for her to live life with a "crippled husband." The two lose contact and never see each other again.

Bucky's grandmother

Bucky maintains a very close relationship with his grandmother throughout his life. After he was left orphaned, Bucky's grandmother raised him. Following the death of Bucky's grandfather, he assumes the role of caregiver for his grandmother. Later, when Bucky contracts polio and goes to a rehabilitation facility in Philadelphia, his grandmother is the only person who he allows to see his crippled body. The death of Bucky's grandmother causes his loneliness and depression to intensify, since she was one of the only people with whom he allowed himself to be vulnerable.

Arnie Mesnikoff

Arnie Mesnikoff is the narrator of Nemesis, though his identity remains largely unknown until the end of the book. Arnie reveals that he contracted polio while he was a student on Bucky's playground in 1944. Over 25 years later, he reunites with Bucky and listens to his life's story. Arnie remains partially paralyzed due to the disease, and he creates a career for himself by architecturally redesigning homes for the physically handicapped. He comes to terms with his disabilities and later takes pride in his successful professional and personal life.

Dr. Steinberg

Dr. Steinberg is Marcia's father. He is a medical doctor by profession and a warm and understanding man. Following the death of Bucky's grandfather, Bucky sees Dr. Steinberg as more than a prospective father-in-law. Rather, he is an important male figure in Bucky's young adult life. Dr. Steinberg informs Bucky about the effects of polio and reassures him that he is doing the right thing amidst the health crisis. In this way, Dr. Steinberg quells the guilt and anxiety Bucky feels while working as the playground director. Dr. Steinberg reaffirms Bucky's desire to marry Marcia and build a healthy family of his own someday. When Bucky is in the polio rehabilitation center in Philadelphia, Dr. Steinberg expresses his disapproval of how Bucky has abandoned Marcia. This embarrasses Bucky, and he never gets over his shame.

Horace

Horace is a mentally and physically disabled middle-aged man. He lives in Weequahic, and his parents often let him aimlessly roam the neighborhood. His physical appearance is shocking, and he is dubbed the "neighborhood moron." His face is eerily contorted, his feet drag beneath him, and he has a “sour smell” that is instantly recognizable. Additionally, Horace can get agitated by specific sounds and behaviors. He is mocked by some of the playground boys, specifically the Kopferman brothers. Later in the story, Horace is ostracized for "carrying polio" due to his unsanitary personal hygiene.

Alan Michaels

Alan Michaels is Bucky's star pupil on the playground. He dies just three days after contracting polio, which deeply impacts Bucky and the rest of the Weequahic community. Bucky visits the home of Alan Michaels to pay his respects to the family. He listens intently as Mr. Michaels praises Alan, and Bucky is deeply affected by the family’s overwhelming grief. He later attends Alan's funeral and burial.

Myron and Danny Kopferman

Myron and Danny Kopferman are mischievous brothers. They routinely mock and tease Horace, which causes numerous problems on the playground. In the novel, Bucky recalls one particularly cruel occasion in which Danny fired a toy weapon into the air in order to agitate Horace. Bucky reminisces about how he confiscated the weapon and sent Danny home with a letter explaining the day’s incidents. Both of the Kopferman brothers later contract polio.

Yushy

Yushy is the counterman at the neighborhood hotdog stand. His business comes to a standstill following the death of Alan Michaels. Because Alan ate there before contracting polio, the Weequahic community is skeptical of the establishment's hygienic practices. Yushy believes that the Italians brought polio to the Jewish neighborhood. Yushy is also confident that the playground is the epicenter of the disease, since nearly all cases are tied to the location. Yushy breaks the news to Bucky that another one of his students, Herbie Steinmark, passed away from the disease.

Herbie Steinmark

Herbie Steinmark is another one of Bucky's students who contracts polio. After a brief battle with the illness, he passes away due to respiratory complications. Bucky remembers Herbie for his innocence, clumsiness, and unathletic nature.

Mrs. Kopferman

Mrs. Kopferman is the mother of Myron and Danny. After Bucky hears the news of the boys' illness, he calls Mrs. Kopferman to express his concern and send well-wishes. To Bucky’s surprise, Mrs. Kopferman lashes out and blames Bucky for exposing her children to illness-inducing conditions. The phone call deeply affects Bucky, and he feels an immense sense of guilt. He worries about endangering the lives of the children that he cares for, but he also recognizes the essential need for children to have a recreational release.

Kenny Blumenfield

Kenny Blumenfield is another one of Bucky's students. He is deeply affected by losing his classmates to polio, and he fears that another one of his friends could quickly fall victim to the disease. One day, Kenny violently lashes out at Horace and tries to forcefully remove him from the playground. Kenny is hysterical and revolted by the excrement on Horace’s hands and clothing. Kenny proclaims that Horace’s poor personal hygiene is the cause of polio. He treats Horace like a “rabid dog,” which causes Horace to wail and grow increasingly defiant.

Jake and Dave

Jake and Dave are Bucky's best friends from college. They competed in javelin together, and both Jake and Dave are in Europe fighting during WWII. While Bucky is working at Indian Hill Camp, Bucky learns that Jake has been killed in battle in France. Later, when Bucky meets with Arnie, he reveals that he lost contact with Dave.

Mr. Blomback

Mr. Blomback is the owner and director of Indian Hill camp. He is passionate about Native American tradition, and he incorporates his learnings into the camp's ritualistic practices.

Donald Kaplow

Donald Kaplow is Bucky's best friend at Indian Hill camp. At just seventeen years old, Donald looks up to Bucky as an older athletic mentor. Donald contracts a severe case of polio while at Indian Hill, and Bucky is deeply scarred by his illness. Bucky remains convinced that he carried polio from Newark to Indian Hill, and he feels responsible for Donald's illness.

Dr. Huntley

Dr. Huntley is the medical director at Indian Hill. He urges Bucky to get a spinal tap and test for polio. The results come back positive, and Bucky's life is forever altered.

Phyllis and Sheila Steinberg

Phyllis and Sheila Steinberg are Marcia's younger sisters. They are twins, and Sheila later contracts a mild case of polio. Bucky feels responsible for Sheila's illness, which is part of the reason he feels too ashamed to resume a relationship with Marcia

Nemesis Themes

The Senselessness of Disease

Polio is a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. In 1944, Weequahic experiences an intense surge in severe cases. Older members of the community recall the slew of diseases that have plagued Weequahic in prior decades, but polio's devastation seems unmatched. Bucky is especially affected by the effects the virus has on the youngest, most vulnerable members of the community. When Weequahic is hit hardest, the citizens want answers. What causes polio? Are there preventable measures to be taken? Is there a cure? These unanswered questions, coupled with the intense destruction caused by the virus, lead to heightened feelings of paranoia and doubt. Weequahic's hostility compounds Bucky's own anxieties, and these feelings later manifest into self-loathing and depression.

Personal Responsibility

Bucky's general feeling of helplessness causes him to blur the line between what is outside his realm of control and what is not. For example, Bucky obsesses over the fact that he cannot complete his military service. He wastes his energy worrying about his poor eyesight, and he fails to realize that his own medical condition is outside his realm of control. Later, Bucky transforms his anxieties about the virus into something within his responsibility. He begins to see himself as a carrier, and he unfairly feels responsible for destroying his community. Most importantly, Bucky fails to grasp the only thing he can control—his emotional wellbeing. By assuming personal responsibility for the tragedies in his life, Bucky feels unworthy of love and affection. Ultimately, Bucky's skewed sense of personal responsibility facilitates his demise.

Questioning One's Faith

Bucky is raised in an observant Jewish household. In addition, Weequahic is an insular Jewish neighborhood: Ashkenazi Jewish culture defines the community's practices and customs. Ethnic conflict is at the center of the story; after the Italians spit on Bucky's playground, the students begin to contract polio. Although there is no scientifically provable correlation between the two events, the Jewish community feels antagonized by the Italians.

The rise of antisemitism during World War II also causes the citizens of Weequahic to feel prone to attack. Because polio hits Weequahic the hardest out of all the other ethnic neighborhoods in Newark, many citizens think the disease intended to wipe out their population. All of these factors prompt Bucky to question his relationship to Judaism.

As Bucky navigates the tragedies of the polio pandemic, he fails to understand why God would ever allow for so many children to senselessly die. Later, Bucky grows angry at God for his mother's premature death. Bucky's resentment towards God reiterates the motif of scapegoating. As the citizens of Weequahic are forced to deal with the hopelessness of their reality, they blame various forces for their misfortune.

The Innocence of Childhood

Childhood is often associated with innocence and simplicity. However, the relationship between youth and purity is turned on its head during the polio epidemic of 1944. Instead of being carefree and unbothered, the children in Weequahic are anxious and hysterical. Those who do not contract polio are emotionally traumatized as they are left to grieve for their classmates, peers, and friends.

Although the playground is believed to be the "epicenter" of polio within the community, the act of playing allows for children to distract themselves from their harsh reality. On the playground, the children are able to activate their imaginations and convene with their friends. For this reason, Bucky takes his job very seriously. As the playground director, Bucky feels responsible for preserving the illusion of the children's innocence.

The Politics of Crisis

Throughout history, crises often yield upsurges in nationalism. During times of adversity and uncertainty, people often look to their local and national communities for comfort and encouragement. In 1944, the community of Weequahic must cope with the effects of two global tragedies—World War II and polio. The community responds by exercising their patriotism, and this rise of nationalism is evident throughout Nemesis.

Firstly, it is important to understand patriotism as it pertains to Weequahic. Firstly, the young adults in Weequahic are the children and grandchildren of Eastern European Jewish immigrants. Fighting in the war allows them to exercise their American identity. Additionally, fighting for the United States—against Hitler—provides them with the feeling that they are simultaneously defending their Jewish identities.

While at Indian Hill, Bucky sees how American nationalism is being exercised by the youngest campers. The summer camp is steeped in "Americana," and Mr. Blomback uses Native American rituals to create a "campy" theme. During "Indian Night," which takes place during one evening each week, Mr. Blomback dresses up as a Native American chief and reads the campers the latest news headlines. Bucky is shocked as the campers offer commentary about the U.S. winning WWII and FDR being re-elected as president.

Environmental Injustice

The first chapter of Nemesis is entitled "Equatorial Network." Throughout the story, Roth emphasizes the city's oppressive heat and wetland-ringed geography. The humid air is a breeding ground for mosquitoes, and the insects are known to carry diseases. Newark's susceptibility to disease introduces the novel's theme of environmental injustice. Throughout history—and still today—low-income communities are particularly susceptible to environmentally-related diseases due to the location of their neighborhoods.

When Bucky visits Indian Hill, he is struck by the campground's natural beauty. He juxtaposes the clean air with Newark's ruggedness, and he immediately feels at ease. However, Bucky comments that attending summer camp is not a realistic summer alternative for Weequahic children. Bucky is brought to the camp through his fiancée Marcia, who comes from an upper-middle-class background. Although Indian Hill is not immune to polio following Bucky's arrival, the environment provides an escape from the atrocities of the present day.

Aging and the Passage of Time

In the final decade of his life, author Philip Roth published four books. This collection of writing is often classified as the "Nemeses" novels and includes Everyman (2006), Indignation (2008), The Humbling (2009), and Nemesis (2010). Throughout his career, Roth was notably recognized for blurring the line between reality and fiction, autobiography and fantasy. It is understandable that Roth's later works thus center around the themes of mortality and aging.

When Arnie catches up with Bucky, he learns how Bucky's psychological state has worsened as he has gotten older. Now in the latter part of his life, Bucky is haunted by the memories of his past and questions life's meaning. Although time has passed, Bucky's wounds have only grown deeper.

In his final years, author Philip Roth expressed pessimism about society's future. Nemesis could be understood as a sort of foretelling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bucky's experience with polio strangely mirrors how vulnerable communities were particularly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Nemesis Symbols, Allegory and Motifs

Alan's Fish (Symbol)

When Alan Michaels dies from polio, Bucky visits his home in order to pay the family his respects. While there, Mr. Michaels shares his fond memories of Alan and comments on his son's gentle nature. Mr. Michaels explains Alan's affinity for tropical fish. According to Alan's father, the young boy was quite knowledgeable about different species and loved to share his learnings with others. After Alan's death, his father remarks about feeding and caring for the fish he left behind. Alan's pet fish is a reminder of his tender character. Although Alan has passed away unexpectedly, he lives on through his aquatic companions.

The Perfect Peach (Symbol)

After Bucky has been chastised by Mrs. Kopferman, he is confused and guilty about his role in the polio epidemic. He realizes that he doesn't know that much about the disease or its effects, and he desires to learn more from a medical expert. Bucky visits Dr. Steinberg, Marcia's father. While at the Steinbergs' home, Bucky is comforted by the doctor's advice. He reassures Bucky that he is doing the right thing by maintaining the playground, and Bucky becomes less anxious and guilty about his choices. While sitting on the porch, Bucky bites into a sweet, "perfect peach." In Chinese mythology, peaches symbolize longevity and immortality. In this context, Bucky's fears about death and disease are eased by his consumption of the fruit. Upon tasting the peach, Bucky feels immediately comforted. This positive feeling prompts him to ask for Marcia's hand in marriage and become a member of the warm and friendly Steinberg family.

Darkness (Motif)

The motif of darkness appears throughout the story. When Bucky visits the home of Alan Michaels, he notices that the shades are drawn and dark drapes are pulled across all of the windows. In this example, darkness represents the sadness that the family feels as they grieve for their dead child. Later in the novel, the motif of darkness recurs during Bucky's experience at Indian Hill camp. Bucky and Marcia can only meet in the darkness of night. During their rendezvous, the couple has small arguments that prevent them from fully understanding one another and their respective anxieties. Later, a darkness settles over the camp and causes Bucky to feel unresolved. In this instance, the darkness foreshadows that the "utopia" of Indian Hill is coming to an end.

Heat (Motif)

The summer of 1944 is notable for its oppressive heat. Bucky discusses the heat as if it is a character in the novel; it has an overwhelming presence that drives people's actions and causes the citizens of Weequahic to feel desperate and uncomfortable. Much like polio itself, the heat is inescapable and oppressive. The temperature causes the air to grow thick, and it is often personified as "carrying" and "spreading" the disease. In the bible, heat is associated with hell and the devil. Roth creates a cruel physical environment in order to convey that Weequahic during the summer of 1944 was Hell on Earth.

Butterflies (Symbol)

One afternoon, a huge swarm of butterflies settles over Indian Hill. For an hour during the middle of the afternoon, the butterflies "could be seen erratically dipping and darting over the playing fields and thickly perched on the tape of the tennis nets." The butterflies are an anomaly, and no one is able to explain the conditions that led to their arrival. As the story progresses, it becomes clear that the butterflies symbolize radical change. While Indian Hill is depicted as paradisiacal, it is not immune to the pandemic that rocks the rest of the country. Soon after the butterflies arrive, Donald contracts a severe case of polio. Indian Hill camp is no longer an elite escape from the disease; instead, it is a new epicenter.

Nemesis Metaphors and Similes

The Germ of Fear (Metaphor)

While taking a walk in town, Bucky runs into a mother of one of his students. She is anxious about polio, and she worries that her son will contract it at the playground. Bucky reassures the mother and explains that it is most important to "not infect the children with the germ of fear." This metaphor summarizes Bucky's opinions on the epidemic. Bucky believes his role is to bring strength to the playground and to his community. Like his grandfather taught him, Bucky is unwavering in the face of adversity.

A Hand Grenade (Simile)

During the funeral of Alan Michaels, Bucky imagines that his casket will "ignite and explode, as though a hand grenade had gone off inside." Bucky is overwhelmed by the death of his favorite student, and he struggles to cope with the senselessness of his untimely passing. During the funeral, Bucky's emotional overload is further compounded by the oppressive summer heat. Bucky feels as though his reality has turned into a nightmare. His fantasy of Alan's body exploding reveals to the reader that the protagonist has lost his grip on reality.

Students as Animals (Simile)

When Bucky hears that the Kopferman boys have contracted polio, he calls their mother to express his concern. However, she reacts in a way that Bucky does not expect. She blames Bucky for being an irresponsible playground director and says that he lets his students "run around like animals." Mrs. Kopferman compares the students to animals in order to insult Bucky's leadership skills. She insinuates that he lets his students behave inhumanely, which causes the spread of polio.

Rabid Dog (Simile)

One afternoon, Kenny Blumenfield has a hysterical fit on the playground. He fears that Horace, a disabled man in the community, is a polio carrier due to his poor personal hygiene. During Kenny's breakdown, he waves his mitt violently in the air, "as though warding off the attack of a rabid dog." The comparison of Horace to a rabid dog signifies his dehumanization. Horace is ostracized by the community, and he is not treated with compassion. The community displaces their anxieties onto him, and he becomes a scapegoat for the cause of the pandemic.

A Brick Wall (Metaphor)

While at Indian Hill, Bucky's grandmother calls him to say that his best friend, Jake, has been killed fighting the war in France. In disbelief, Bucky proclaims that Jake was "indestructible. He was a brick wall." Bucky places a great emphasis on physical strength. He views bodybuilding as a form of protection and a guard against vulnerability. Bucky is shocked that his friend, who he revered as a masculine wartime hero, could fall victim to violence.

 

Hamilton: An American Musical (Drama) by Lin-Manuel Miranda

 

Hamilton : An American Musical (Drama) by Lin-Manuel Miranda.

Biography of Lin-Manuel Miranda

Lin-Manuel Miranda is a multi-talented composer, lyricist, writer, playwright, rapper, and performer known for creating the hit musical Hamilton, in which he also starred.

Born and raised in upper Manhattan, New York, in a Puerto Rican family, Miranda showed an early interest in musical theater and music, writing jingles and songs for school and various political campaigns. He attended Hunter College High School in Manhattan, before studying at Wesleyan University in Connecticut. While at Wesleyan, he wrote the first draft of what would become his first Broadway musical, In the Heights. After graduating from Wesleyan in 2002, Miranda began work spearheading a production for New York.

After finding success Off Broadway, In the Heights premiered on Broadway in 2008. The musical follows the story of a bodega owner in Washington Heights and the community in that neighborhood. It was notable for its integration of rap and other vernacular music styles into the musical theater tradition. It won 4 Tony Awards for Best Musical, Best Original Score, and Best Choreography. Miranda played the main character and earned a Tony nomination for his performance. There is a film version in the works.

Hamilton: An American Musical was Miranda's next smash hit. After getting workshopped at the Public Theater in an off-Broadway run, it transferred to Broadway to overwhelming acclaim. It has won countless awards and been credited with reviving the American musical. Among its accolades are the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Drama, a 2016 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album, and 11 Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Book, and Best Original Score. The cast album was at the top of the rap charts for weeks, and it continues to be one of the hottest Broadway tickets.

Miranda's other writing credits include the music and lyrics for Bring it On: The Musical, and the soundtrack for the hit Disney movie Moana. His next projects include writing songs for a live-action Disney update of The Little Mermaid, as well as costarring in the remake of Mary Poppins opposite Emily Blunt.

 

Summary

Act I

The musical opens with the ensemble giving a summary of Alexander Hamilton’s childhood in the middle of the 18th century, before the American revolution. Various cast members describe how a series of misfortunes set Hamilton on his path to fame. After a hurricane destroyed his island, his mother died, and his father abandoned him, Hamilton wrote about his traumatic experience. Impressed by his facility with language, people from his island raised money to send him to America to get an education. After catching the audience up to speed on this exposition, the play proper begins.

Arriving in New York, the ambitious young Hamilton seeks out Aaron Burr and asks for advice on obtaining an accelerated course of study like Burr did. Burr advises Hamilton not to talk so much, but Hamilton insists that he talks so much because he has passionate opinions. The two characters are established as foils for one another; where Hamilton is brash, outspoken and opinionated, Burr is careful, strategic, and less principled. When the two new acquaintances go to a bar, they meet John Laurens, Hercules Mulligan, and the Marquis de Lafayette. All except Burr are excited about the imminent American Revolution, cheering, “raise a glass to freedom.”

We are next introduced to the Schuyler sisters, who wander through downtown New York City enjoying the excitement of the changing social tides. Aaron Burr hits on Angelica, but she shuts him down. She then states that she has been reading Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, and is looking for a “revelation," expressing a desire for female equality.

We meet Loyalist Samuel Seabury, a farmer who is condemning the revolutionary Continental Congress (and all patriots in general). When he encounters the farmer, Hamilton criticizes Seabury’s condemnations. A message from King George arrives in America, warning the colonists that the king will do whatever he needs to do to keep the colonies under his control. The king sends General Howe and 30,000 troops to the New York harbor, challenging the colonial Americans' desire for independence.

Next we are introduced to General George Washington, who recognizes that the colonists are at a severe disadvantage to the British troops. He is frustrated that the rebel troops keep retreating. When Hamilton steals the English troops’ canons, showing that he is willing to take risks and break the rules for the sake of America, he wins favor with Washington. Meanwhile, Aaron Burr introduces himself to Washington, offering assistance and advice, but ends up offending Washington by criticizing the current state of the colonial troops. Washington asks Hamilton to help him with war plans, and Hamilton recruits John Laurens, Hercules Mulligan, and Lafayette to aid the rebellion. He sets Mulligan up on the British side as a spy and writes to Congress to convince them to send supplies. He wants to use an element of surprise to defeat the British.

Some time later, Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton are at a winter ball, and Burr tells Hamilton that if he marries a Schuyler sister he will become rich. Eliza Schuyler sees Hamilton and falls in love with him at first sight. She tells her sister, Angelica, that Hamilton is the one, so Angelica introduces them. Alexander and Eliza write love letters for the next two weeks, and then get engaged.

On the day of the wedding, Angelica reveals to the audience that she is also in love with Alexander, but gave him to Eliza because he was poor and she was expected to marry rich, and because she knew Eliza was in love with him. As Hamilton’s friends congratulate Hamilton on his marriage, they ask Burr about a woman he has “on the side.” Burr admits that he loves a woman named Theodosia, who is married to a British officer. Hamilton tells him to go after her, but Burr says he is “willing to wait for it.” Burr compares his life to Hamilton’s, noting that “Hamilton faces an endless uphill climb,” and he “wastes no time,” but Burr will wait to see what his own purpose is before acting.

Later, the American troops are dangerously low on supplies. Washington plans a surprise, night-time attack against the British, hoping for some help from the French. Washington makes Charles Lee second in command, but Lee proves unable to lead an army. When Lee criticizes Washington, Laurens challenges Lee to a duel, even though Washington has forbidden it. In the duel, Laurens shoots Lee in the side, so Lee yields. Washington is upset with Hamilton, who acted as Laurens’ number two. When Hamilton insists that he should be in charge of a battalion, Washington disagrees, saying it is too risky and that he needs Hamilton to stay alive, sending him home.

When Hamilton arrives home, Eliza tells him she is pregnant and that she wrote to Washington, asking him to send Hamilton home. Meanwhile, Lafayette secures aid from France, ensuring that the colonists will be able to defeat the British at Yorktown. Washington invites Hamilton back, and offers him a position in command.

1781—The Battle of Yorktown. Hamilton, worried about the possibility of a stray, accidental gunshot, orders his men to remove the bullets from their guns as they make a surprise attack. After a week of fighting, the British surrender. King George returns to the stage to reprise his warnings, and challenges America: “What comes next?” He tells them they don’t know how to lead or be independent.

Aaron Burr, who has married the woman with whom he was having an affair following her husband's death, meets his first and only child, a daughter named Theodosia. Simultaneously, Hamilton meets his son, Philip. The two new parents have a similar hope that they can build a country their respective child can “come of age with.” Both return to New York to study law, but Hamilton progresses much further and faster than Burr, becoming a lawyer and working on the very first murder trial in independent America. Given his talents, Hamilton is chosen to participate in the Constitutional Convention, a group tasked with forming the legal framework for the new nation. He shows up at Burr’s house in the middle of the night, asking if he will help defend the new constitution, admitting that Burr is a better lawyer than him. When Burr refuses to help write the Federalist Papers, Alexander calls him out for never having opinions and always standing to the side. Later, Hamilton recruits John Jay and James Madison to help write the Papers. Washington asks Hamilton to run the National Treasury Department. Angelica tells Alexander that she has married a rich man, and is spending time with him in London for a while.

Act II

We meet Thomas Jefferson, who has been the ambassador to France, abroad for the duration of the war. He returns to his home in Monticello, a plantation in Virginia. Washington has asked him to be the Secretary of State, and he is already Senate-approved by the time he returns. He goes to New York City, where James Madison asks him to help stop Hamilton’s financial plan, which, he believes, would allow too much government control. Hamilton wants the federal government to “assume state debts and establish a national bank.” Jefferson and Hamilton debate the plan. Jefferson argues that since some states, such as Virginia, already paid their war debts, they shouldn’t have to pay for other states’ debts too. He also points out that since America just escaped a government with too many taxes, it does not make sense that they should want to establish federal taxes in America. Hamilton responds that assuming the debts would make America wealthier in the long run, and then condemns Jefferson for supporting slave labor in the South. Washington tells Hamilton he needs to find a compromise and gain more Congressional approval, or he will most likely be asked to leave Washington’s cabinet.

Eliza implores Hamilton to take a break from work. She and Angelica are going upstate for the summer and they want him to join them, but Hamilton insists that he can’t vacation with them because he needs to get his plan through Congress.

When Eliza and Angelica are gone for the summer, Hamilton meets Maria Reynolds, who appeals to Hamilton for help, claiming she is being mistreated by her husband, James Reynolds. Alexander lends her some money and walks her home. When she offers herself to Hamilton, the two begin an affair that lasts for a month. Soon after, Hamilton receives a letter from Maria’s husband blackmailing him. Hamilton pays James Reynolds to not tell anyone (especially Eliza) about the affair.

Later, Hamilton, Jefferson, and Washington have a private meeting to discuss Hamilton’s financial plan. Jefferson and Washington agree to the plan, as long as the national capital, which was in New York City at the time, is moved further south (just north of Virginia, to modern-day Washington D.C.). Aaron Burr bemoans not being in the room when the deal took place. James Madison, who was working with Jefferson, gets the votes Hamilton needs to push his deal through Congress.

Aaron Burr defeats Eliza’s father, Philip Schuyler, in a Senate race, switching to the Democratic Republican Party in order to win. Hamilton considers Burr's running against Schuyler a personal attack, but Burr insists he was only taking an opportunity to advance his career.

Congress debates whether or not to aid French citizens in their Revolutionary War. Jefferson argues that France provided aid during the American Revolution and America promised to aid France. He furthers his argument, saying that France did not ask for land, only help with their revolution. Hamilton counters that France is too much of a mess after going through their own Revolution, so getting involved could harm America. He also argues that America received aid from and signed a treaty with the King, who is now dead. Washington agrees with Hamilton that the people of France don’t know who will lead them in the wake of the Revolution, making the situation too dangerous. Jefferson accuses Hamilton of betraying Lafayette. Burr, Jefferson, and Madison are upset that Hamilton “got Washington in his pocket.” The three agree to try and find some dirt on Hamilton by following the money to and from the treasury to see where it goes.

Washington tells Hamilton that Jefferson resigned from the cabinet in order to run for president, and that Washington is stepping down. But John Adams wins the presidency, and fires Hamilton immediately. Hamilton publishes a response, in which he criticizes Adams. Meanwhile, Burr, Jefferson, and Madison discover Hamilton's payments to James Reynolds, which, they believe, are evidence of some sort of illegal political deal. Hamilton proves to the men that he did not spend the treasury’s money and that he was paying to cover a sex-scandal. Worried about what his dissenters could do with this information, he publishes “The Reynolds Pamphlet,” in which he publicly admits to the affair. Angelica confronts Alexander about the pamphlet, telling him she stands by Eliza. When she finds out, Eliza burns the letters she wrote to Hamilton, in order to maintain her privacy and to write herself out of the historical “narrative.”

Later, Philip, Hamilton's son, defends his father from the criticism of another young man, George Eacker. Philip challenges Eacker to a duel, and Hamilton advises his son to fire his gun in the air when it comes time. At the duel, Philip starts to do as his father said, but Eacker fires before the count of ten, hitting Philip right above the hip. Eliza and Alexander are both at Philip’s side when he dies in the hospital. After the tragedy, the two reconcile.

The Election of 1800. Americans are disappointed with Adams’ presidency. Jefferson and Burr both run against him. Since it is clear that Adams will not be president, the race is between Jefferson and Burr. Madison suggests that Jefferson should try and get an endorsement from Hamilton. Burr openly campaigns against Jefferson, something unheard of at the time. When the time comes, the Federalist Party looks at Hamilton to see which way they should vote. Hamilton endorses Jefferson, stating, “Jefferson has beliefs, Burr has none.” Upset, Burr challenges Hamilton to a duel.

At the duel, Burr is paranoid that Hamilton is out to kill him. He notes that Hamilton “methodically fiddled with the trigger,” and was wearing his glasses “to take deadly aim.” Though Hamilton points his gun at the sky just as he told his son to, Burr shoots him. In a soliloquy, Hamilton contemplates the legacy he leaves behind and his imminent death. Burr regrets killing Hamilton, saying, “the world was wide enough for both Hamilton and me.” Both Eliza and Angelica are at Hamilton’s side when he dies.

The musical ends with Eliza telling the story of the Founding Fathers. She relates how she lives 50 years longer than Hamilton and works to uphold his legacy. She opens an orphanage in his name and sings the song, "Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story."

Hamilton Character List

Alexander Hamilton

Alexander Hamilton is the protagonist of the musical. The entire show follows his rise and fall during the American Revolution and the beginning of the American nation. Born on an island in the Caribbean to a poor family and eventually orphaned, Hamilton had a rough childhood that he is ambitious to overcome. At nineteen he goes to America to get an education. Smart and extremely motivated, Hamilton does everything necessary to “rise” and earn the respect and authority he feels he deserves. He is a scrappy, ingenious, and opinionated man. His writing brings him a lot of attention, as does his tendency to argue with just about everyone. Passionate and opinionated, Hamilton frequently criticizes Aaron Burr for not being committed to any beliefs, and the pair share a respectful but contentious friendship.

Hamilton becomes George Washington’s right-hand man during the Revolutionary War, and therefore is integral to the American colonists' victory over the British. After the war, Hamilton serves as the first Secretary of the Treasury. He is immediately removed from the president’s cabinet after John Adams is elected, but his influence on the nation was long-lasting. Hamilton was responsible for the structure of the American financial system, as well as creating the coast guard and the newspaper The New York Post. At the end of the play, he dies in a duel with Aaron Burr.

Aaron Burr

The main antagonist of the musical, Aaron Burr is described as one of Hamilton’s first friends in America. Though the two of them argue during the first act of the musical, they still consider each other friends, until Hamilton’s career continuously moved forward and Burr’s stagnates. When Hamilton endorses Thomas Jefferson for President instead of Burr, Burr becomes so enraged that he challenges Hamilton to a duel, during which he shoots and kills his adversary. Shortly afterward, Burr expresses regret at killing Hamilton.

Though he is the antagonist of the musical, Burr is a sympathetic and complex character. He is similar to Hamilton in that he is intelligent and motivated and wants to be an influential figure in the new nation. He is different because instead of tackling everything head-on with passion, Burr waits and sees how things will turn out before taking action. Throughout the musical, Hamilton accuses him of being wishy-washy and not having strong values. Before his duel with Hamilton, Burr switches parties just to run for a seat in the Senate, which would advance his position. This action is emblematic of Burr's disingenuousness and political strategizing.

George Washington

George Washington is a general during the American Revolution and the first President of the United States. During the war he is often frustrated with the colonial troops for being so weak and afraid. Instead of stepping forward to meet the enemy, they step backward to shoot from afar. Washington acts as a sort of mentor for Hamilton, and comes to depend on Hamilton as his right-hand man. He dies sometime after his second term as president, predeceasing Hamilton.

Elizabeth "Eliza" Schuyler

Eliza is one of the three wealthy Schuyler sisters from New York. She falls in love with Alexander the moment she sees him, and they soon marry. Eliza, the “best of wives and best of women,” is described as being reserved, trusting, and kind. When Hamilton reveals that he has had an affair, Eliza is very disappointed and angry with him, and sings a passionate ballad about destroying her and Hamilton's love letters. When Hamilton dies she honors his memory by doing everything she thinks he would have done if he had had more time. She interviews every soldier who fought with him, tries to make sense of thousands of pages of his writing, raises funds for the Washington Monument, speaks out against slavery, and opens the first private orphanage in New York City. Eliza is a loving and loyal woman to Alexander Hamilton, but she is also passionate and fierce in her convictions in her own right.

Angelica Schuyler

Portrayed as an intelligent and witty social butterfly, Angelica falls in love with Alexander Hamilton, but is obliged by her family to marry a wealthier man. She introduces Hamilton to her sister, Eliza, at a ball, and holds out an affection for him even after marrying a different man. It is suggested that Hamilton also loves Angelica, but this is not confirmed. He writes a letter to Angelica in which he opens, “My Dearest, Angelica.” Angelica is deeply disappointed in Hamilton when he has an affair, but she forgives him after he reconciles with Eliza, and she is by his side when he dies.

John Laurens

John Laurens becomes good friends with Hamilton. He works to end slavery and creates the first black battalion, which fought in the American Revolution in exchange for freedom. When Washington forbids Hamilton from dueling Charles Lee, Laurens does it instead. He dies sometime during the Revolution.

Marquis de Lafayette

A French aristocrat and military officer, Lafayette becomes friends with Hamilton and helps fight in the American Revolution. He obtains supplies and assistance from France, which gives the Americans an advantage against the British, allowing them to win the war at Yorktown. Lafayette returns to France with the intention to bring freedom to his own people, but ultimately fails.

Hercules Mulligan

A tailor turned soldier and a friend of Hamilton’s, Hercules Mulligan acts as a spy for the colonists and passes on essential information that helps secure a victory for the colonists at the Battle of Yorktown.

Thomas Jefferson

In 1789, Thomas Jefferson returns to America from France and immediately becomes the first Secretary of State. He disagrees with Hamilton on every possible political issue and fights for state rights, protecting the interests of the South. Threatened by Hamilton’s power, Jefferson tries to find something illegal that Hamilton has done to get him in trouble, but only uncovers the sex scandal with Maria Reynolds, which Hamilton publicly admits to before Jefferson can use it against him. Jefferson runs for president when Washington steps down. He loses to John Adams, but runs again the following election and wins, due to Hamilton’s endorsement.

In the musical, Jefferson is portrayed as a charming and flamboyant, but somewhat careless individual. He returns just after the war has ended, having played no part in the revolution, and brags about his foppish womanizing ways. While he is not an antagonist explicitly, he is the antithesis of Hamilton in many ways.

James Madison

Though he initially helps Hamilton write the Federalist Papers, Madison aligns with Jefferson to try to bring Hamilton down later in the play.

Philip Hamilton

Alexander and Eliza’s oldest son, Philip, is a self-proclaimed poet. He learns French and piano from his mother, and inherits his father's intelligence and charm. He dies in a duel, defending his father’s honor.

Maria Reynolds

Mistreated by her husband, Maria Reynolds appeals to Hamilton and has a month-long affair with him. This scandal is one of the key events that contribute to Hamilton’s career decline. Maria is a seductress and femme fatale of sorts.

Charles Lee

Charles Lee is a general who fights for the colonists and who George Washington choses over Hamilton for a command post. His command is taken away at the Battle of Monmouth because of his incompetent leadership. He blames Washington for the losses, leading Laurens to challenge him to a duel, in which Lee is injured.

Samuel Seabury

Samuel Seabury is a bishop and loyalist who takes to the streets and vocally urges people to support the king and Great Britain. He is met with substantial backlash, and challenged by Hamilton to support his beliefs.

King George III

The King of England, George is the monarch against whom the colonists are rebelling. George occasionally makes an appearance in the play to delivers a message, for example, threatening the colonists with death unless they remain loyal to the crown. His charming and upbeat manner contrasts with his often nefarious and chilling messages.

Peggy Schuyler

The youngest and least vocal of the Schuyler sisters, Peggy mostly follows her two elder sisters. Unlike her sisters, her relations with Hamilton are entirely platonic.

George Eacker

George Eacker is a New York lawyer who makes a speech disparaging Alexander Hamilton. He agrees to a duel with Philip Hamilton over these remarks. In the duel, which takes place at Weehawken, New Jersey, Eacker dishonorably shoots and kills Philip, who was aiming his pistol at the sky, a sign meant to show the shooter's intent to throw away their shot.

Hamilton Themes

History/Legacy

The theme of building a legacy that will stand the test of time is something that consumes Hamilton throughout his life, and by extension, the play. During the war, Hamilton is willing to die as long as it is for a cause that means something to him. The idea that “history has its eyes on you” haunts many of the characters. It is this idea that causes Hamilton to risk his marriage by going public with his affair, in the hope that he could preserve his legacy by controlling how the story of his dishonor is told. The sense that everyone has a history and a legacy is what drives the characters' ethical lives, and encourages them to work for what they believe in. This theme is echoed time and again in an oft-uttered mantra of Hamilton's, "I'm not throwing away my shot"—his shot being his one chance at creating a dazzling legacy.

Hamilton’s pride about his legacy is directly contrasted with Washington, who gives up his power after two terms in order to ensure that democratic principles aren't sacrificed for personal glory. When Hamilton dies, Eliza takes up his legacy and seeks to do good in the country for the remaining 50 years of her life so that her husband and family can be remembered honorably. Many of the songs in the musical address the question of how to uphold one's legacy, particularly the last song, called "Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story." The question of one's place in history is central to the thematic world of the play.

War/Conflict

War and revolution shape both the characters and plot of Hamilton, as it is the American revolution that gives Hamilton his fame and success in the American government. Hamilton not only believes that war will help the country earn independence and prove its worth, but that it will help him to stand out in history and prove himself. At one point he says, “I wish there was a war, then we could prove we’re worth more than anyone bargained for." Having had to fight for everything in his life, Hamilton has an attitude that one's honor is worth risking in order to move up in the world. This applies to the future of the country as well. This attitude distinguishes him from the less determined Burr, who does not fight for anything unless he is sure it is advantageous for him.

Running out of time

The theme of time affects each of the characters differently. Hamilton is constantly afraid that he will run out of time, and his fear of the passage of time drives him to become a fiercely hard worker, ambitiously working long hours in order to positively influence the foundation of the country. Burr takes the opposite view, feeling he must always be careful and take his time in order to succeed. Laurens wishes to form the first all black battalion, however he is killed in battle before he can see this dream completed; in this way we see an example of someone whose dreams are denied them by the passage of time. Laurens' death seems to directly affect Hamilton's attitude during the second act, as he says, “I have so much work to do,” and from then on cannot draw his mind away from forming his legacy and completing his work. It is not until the end of the musical that Hamilton realizes the benefit of making peace with our limited time on Earth, when he says (about constructing a legacy): “it's planting seeds in a garden you never get to see.”

Honor & Reputation

The structure of the duel is about protecting and defending one's honor, fighting against another man to stand up for one's self. In this way, the "duel" is a microcosm of the political atmosphere through which Hamilton is navigating. Throughout, he must defend his honor against people who would rather he had less power. In this way, honor is a central theme for the characters in Hamilton. When Philip challenges Eacker to a duel, he does so in order to defend his father's honor and uphold his family's reputation. Then, he behaves even more honorably when he does not shoot at Eacker in the duel. While it costs him his life, Philip dies honorably, meaning he did not do anything that might be interpreted as shady or disreputable.

When Jefferson and his cohort seek to get dirt on Hamilton in order to ruin his reputation, Hamilton decides to take matters into his own hands by releasing the Reynolds Pamphlet, which details his marital infidelities. Rather than let others bring dishonor to him, Hamilton opts to take control of his situation and take responsibility for his immoral actions. While his affair sullies his honor, his ability to be transparent and honest about it turns out to be an honorable tactic, and he is able to win favor with Eliza once again.

In the end, Hamilton dies honorably, not shooting at his rival, Aaron Burr. While he died prematurely, Hamilton's honor has contributed to his positive legacy, while Burr's reputation is as Hamilton's killer, a much less honorable designation.

Forgiveness & Reconciliation

While much of the plot is centered around the grudges and resentments that spring up among heavy hitters in the political realm, another important theme is that of forgiveness and reconciliation. Hamilton, for all his disagreements with Burr, tries to be forgiving and to make a way for the two men to get along, but their differences gradually become too great to overcome. The question of forgiveness comes up most starkly in the relationship between Hamilton and his wife, Eliza. After Hamilton has an affair, and then reveals it publicly in the Reynolds Pamphlet, Eliza is furious with him, and burns his letters in retaliation for her mistreatment. In the course of her passionate ballad, "Burn," it seems like she may never forgive Hamilton. After the death of their son, Hamilton goes to her so that they can mourn together, begging for her forgiveness and promising his loyalty to her in the future. In the wake of their shared tragedy, Eliza accepts Hamilton back into her life and they are reconciled.

Taking Action vs. Waiting

The primary tension between Burr and Hamilton is their wildly different approaches to taking action. While Hamilton is eager to act and wants nothing more than to jump in and get his hands dirty, Burr prefers to sit back and wait for the right time to act. From Hamilton's perspective, Burr's approach is less-than-honest, and often more strategic than genuine. Where Hamilton can be hot-headed, foolhardy, and overly opinionated, Burr can be underhanded, weak-willed, and reticent to the point of untrustworthiness. The rivalry between the two men pits the two different temperaments against one another more broadly, and a central question of the musical becomes about which tactic is more effective and wise in the long run. The two men become foils for one another, alternately revealing weaknesses and strengths in the other's logic.

Writing

One of Hamilton's greatest strengths, aside from his passion and zeal, is his gift with language. Represented theatrically by his abilities and talents as a rapper, Hamilton's gifts as a writer were influential in laying the foundation for America. He was the foremost writer of The Federalist Papers, which urged the people to adopt a strong federal government. His ability to write and be persuasive through text is one of the main attributes of his enduring legacy on the American governmental process, and this is an important theme in the musical.